Rembrandt’s watermarked papers at the National Gallery of Victoria

The National Gallery of Victoria (NGV) holds 140 prints by Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn, a growing collection of the artist’s intaglio works that began over 130 years ago. The first NGV acquisition of this group were eleven etchings purchased in 1891 from Sir Francis Seymour Hayden, British artist, etching enthusiast, and scholar of Rembrandt prints. In 1933 the NGV acquired a group of 53 Rembrandt etchings, Australia’s own artist, keen etcher, and avid print collector. Throughout the 20th century the NGV acquired smaller groups or individual prints, including etchings from the Viscount Downe and Jospeh Ritman collections. This century, a group of etchings was gifted from the Collection of James O. Fairfax AC, including a group of seven prints acquired in 2020. This year the NGV successfully fundraised for the acquisition of an impression of Abraham Francen, apothecary, c.1657, that will make a fine addition to the rich collection of Rembrandt prints the NGV holds today.¹Many of Rembrandt’s etchings have been acquired over the years by the Felton Bequest, while recent acquisitions from the Collection of James O Fairfax AC. were gifted by Bridgestar Pty Ltd and the Australian Government’s Cultural Gifts Program. Acquisition of key Rembrandt impressions in the NGV collection are detailed in Petra Kayser. (ed.) Rembrandt: True to Life, Council of the Trustees of the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, 2023 pp.17-18.

In the Australian winter of 2023, the exhibition Rembrandt: True to Life was held at NGV International, presenting over 100 of the NGV’s prints, two drawings and a handful of paintings by the artist, as well as key loaned artworks from various international institutions. This exhibition was the most comprehensive display of the artist’s work held in Australia for 25 years and presented an opportunity for NGV paper conservators to review Rembrandt’s intaglio work. Senior Conservator of Paper Ruth Shervington and Conservator of Paper Louise Wilson have published an essay each, ‘Rembrandt’s papers’ and ‘Rembrandt’s printmaking techniques’ respectively, in the exhibition catalogue Rembrandt: True to Life.²Louise Wilson, ‘Rembrandt’s printmaking techniques’ and Ruth Shervington, ‘Rembrandt’s papers’ in Kayser. (ed.), pp. 234-241. While Conservator of Paper Bonnie Hearn assessed the watermarks within Rembrandt’s prints, working closely with the NGV Multimedia team, to publish a database of watermarks now available to the public online, Rembrandt’s Watermarked Papers at the National Gallery of Victoria.³National Gallery of Victoria, Rembrandt’s Watermarked Papers at the National Gallery of Victoria, June 2023, https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/explore/collection/ conservation/watermarks-rembrandt/, accessed June 1, 2023

Over the last thirty years NGV paper conservators have been using beta-radiography techniques to image watermarks in papers that are heavily inked, such as many of Rembrandt’s etchings. Beta-radiography is an x-ray imaging technique using a radioactive plate⁴The NGV’s beta-radiography plate is a 1 mm thick sheet of acrylic (polymethacrylate) containing radioactive Carbon-14, approximately 17 x 12 cm in size. that emits low energy beta-particles which pass through the paper, capturing its internal structure as an image on x-ray sensitive film. The process involves placing the work on paper between the radioactive plate and sheet of x-ray film, while a sheet of mount board, glass and weights are placed on top, to create even yet gentle contact during exposure. Beta-radiography is a useful tool for the analysis of paper structure as it offers excellent resolution required to analyse handmade paper features such as watermarks, chain lines, laid lines, and pulp fibre distribution. As we progress into the era of computational and digital radiography, chemicals and x-ray sensitive films used to capture Rembrandt’s watermarks have become scarce and difficult to source. Moving forward, the Conservation team at NGV are currently exploring alternative methods to capture watermarks.

Revered as a prolific and experimental printmaker, Rembrandt sourced and printed on a great variety of papers of both Western and Eastern⁵A survey of the NGV’s Rembrandt prints on Asian papers has been compiled, Jacobus van Breda, 2014 Rembrandt etchings on Oriental papers, National Gallery of Victoria, https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/essay/rembrandt-etchings-on-oriental-papers-papers-in-the-collection-of-the-national-gallery-of-victoria/, accessed May, 2023. origin, and sometimes even on parchment (animal skin). Although Rembrandt printed primarily on white paper, he experimented with other types of papers to achieve aesthetic variation among his impressions. For example, he printed on ‘oatmeal’ paper, so-called for its cream, ochre or grey colour and lumpy or textured appearance, and Eastern papers (Japanese, Chinese and Indian papers) that offered a subtle shine and softness. He was also known to tint his papers before or after printing. Overall, it is believed that Rembrandt printed on at least 350 different kinds of paper.⁶Christopher White, Rembrandt as an Etcher: A Study of the Artist at Work (2nd ed.), Yale University Press, New Haven, 1999, pp. 8–11.

During Rembrandt’s working life, papers were imported to the Netherlands from nearby countries and regions⁷Papermills were not well established within the Dutch Republic until after 1685 and during Rembrandt’s working life paper was imported to the Netherlands from Germany, Switzerland and France. Erik Hinterding, ‘Rembrandt as an Etcher’, Studies in Prints and Printmaking, V. 6, Sound & Vision, The Netherlands, 2006, vol I, pp. 42–7. and the watermarks of these papers give us clues to their origin. Many watermarks in the NGV collection show the coat of arms of a city or region or can be connected to a place of origin by a mere motif.

The watermarks found in NGV prints reflect Rembrandt’s access to papers throughout his career that were affected by the wars of the time such as the Eighty and the Thirty Years’ Wars. From Rembrandt’s early to middle printing career, papers were imported to the Netherlands from Southern Germany, Switzerland and Alsace-Lorraine regions on a large scale. From Southern Germany the NGV has found the watermarks Arms of Württemberg and Arms of Ravensburg, depicting heraldry of these historical German territories. The Basel Crozier symbol, which depicts the crook of the Bishop of Basel’s staff, is a watermark motif found in papers produced in Switzerland.⁸The Crosier was used as an early symbol of the Bishop of Basel and used as a watermark after ‘the entry of Basel into the Swiss Confederation, after 1501’. W. Fr. Tschudin and E. J Labarre, The Ancient Paper-Mills of Basle and Their Marks, Paper Publications Society, Hilversum Holland, 1958, p. 21. In Rembrandt’s papers this symbol is found below the beak of the Basilisk watermark and on the shield of the Eagle, double-headed watermark. Both Swiss watermarks are connected to the Heusler papermaking family in Basel due to the Crozier symbol.⁹The Basel papermaking family Heusler used the Crosier symbol as a personal mark and adopted the double-headed eagle motif from Germany in the 16th century, adding the Crozier symbol to the breast. E. J. Labarre, Dictionary and Encyclopaedia of Paper and Paper-Making, (2nd ed), Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, 1952, pp. 340, 554-356. The NGV has one print with a partial Cross of Lorraine watermark. The full watermark design depicts two letter C’s, one is reversed, and the letters intertwine one another. These letters likely signify Charles III, the Duke of Lorraine and his wife Claude, the Duchess of Lorraine, rulers of the region from the late 16th century.¹⁰Ibid. p. 340. Examples of watermarks from this period of Rembrandt’s working life are shown as vector diagrams.

After the wars ended in the middle of the 17th century, trade reopened with wider France once again and the common French watermarks seen in Rembrandt’s papers are the Strasbourg bend, also known as the Arms of Strasbourg, and the Strasbourg lily, signifying the city in Eastern France. Both these watermarks show the fleur-de-lis symbol, which is a depiction of a lily or European iris that has been used as a watermark symbol from 1285. The fleur-de-lis symbol is typically French as it was incorporated as part of the ancient Arms of France from the 13th century, although it became a common watermark motif used by papermakers from many countries. The Strasbourg watermarks often appear with the monogram ‘WR’, the papermill of Wendelin Richel (or Rihel) operating from the 16th century, while also becoming a common monogram affiliated with the Strasbourg watermark throughout the following century.¹¹Ibid. p. 340, 334, Dard Hunter, Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft, (2nd ed.), rev Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1974, p. 474.

As the demand for French paper increased substantially, the Dutch Capitol commissioned agents to travel to the South-West of France to purchase papers and lease papermaking mills, to manufacture paper exported directly to the Netherlands. The NGV has several watermarks depicting one of two Dutch emblems in Rembrandt’s papers likely made in South-West France. These are the the Arms of Amsterdam watermark, the city’s coat of arms, and the Seven Provinces watermark that shows a rampant lion holding seven arrows to symbolise the uniting of the Dutch Republic.¹²Labarre, pp. 340-356, The Nostitz Papers: Notes on Watermarks Found in the German Imperial Archives of the 17th & 18th Centuries and Essays Showing the Evolution of a Number of Watermarks. Hilversum Holland, Paper Publications Society, 1956, p. 37.

The most comprehensive study undertaken of Rembrandt’s watermarks is Erik Hinterding’s 2006 catalogue Rembrandt as an Etcher, published over three volumes.¹³Hinterding 2006, vol I, II and III. This study assesses 2,413 watermarks found in Rembrandt’s papers from 37 contributing institutions and collectors, including 49 watermarks captured and shared by the NGV. By analysing a large quantity of watermarks, Hinterding aimed to build on previous study of Rembrandts etchings, distinguishing early impressions from those printed later in Rembrandt’s life, while attempting to date each impression cited more precisely. Hinterding uses the coding system previously developed by Ash and Fletcher¹⁴Nancy Ash and Shelley Fletcher, Watermarks in Rembrandt’s Prints, National Gallery of Art, Washington, 1998. to differentiate variants within each motif or design group, and to identify identical watermarks (watermarks made on the same papermaking mould¹⁵Also known as ‘mouldmates’ which refers to any two sheets formed on the same papermaking mould. Mouldmate was termed by C. Richard Johnson. Ellis, M. H., Johnson, C. R. and Sethares, ‘Moldmates Matter: Computational Tools to Enhance, Measure, Compare, and Match Historical Papers,’ Getty Research Journal, 2023, 17(1), pp. 1–24, note 1.) twin watermarks (watermarks made on a pair of papermaking moulds that are almost identical) and closely related watermarks.

Since Hinterding’s 2006 catalogue, NGV paper conservators have captured nine additional watermarks which have been published for the first time online from June 2023 (alongside the 49 cited by Hinterding):

1. Foolscap with five-pointed collar, variant B.a.a found in the impression The Rest on the Flight into Egypt: lightly etched, 1645 (NHD 227), (National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Collection of James O Fairfax AC. Presented by Bridgestar Pty Ltd through the Australian Government’s Cultural Gifts Program, 2020)
2. Serpent, variant A.b found in The great Jewish bride, 1635 (NHD 154 v/v), (National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Felton Bequest, 1933)
3. Strasbourg lily, variant A.4WR.c.a found in Christ Presented to the People: oblong plate, 1655 (NHD 290 v/viii), (National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Felton Bequest, 1940)
4. Strasbourg lily, variant B found in The Decent from the Cross by torchlight, 1654 (NHD 286 ii/iv), (National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Felton Bequest, 1933)
5. Strasbourg lily, variant E’.a.b found in St Francis beneath a tree, praying, 1657 (NHD 299 ii/ii), (National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Collection of James O Fairfax AC. Presented by Bridgestar Pty Ltd through the Australian Government’s Cultural Gifts Program, 2003)
6. Strasbourg lily, variant ZZ.zz (unidentified reference), found in Woman with the arrow, 1661 (NHD 313 ii/iii), (National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, purchased through The Art Foundation of Victoria with the assistance of Dame Elisabeth Murdoch, AC DBE, Founder Benefactor, 1998)
7. Miscellaneous, late, variant A.zz found in Jews in the Synagogue, 1648 (NHD 242 v/ix), (National Galleryof Victoria, Melbourne, Felton Bequest, 1933)
8. Unknown fragment on oatmeal paper found in Jan Lutma, goldsmith, 1656 (NHD 293 iv/v), (National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Collection of James O Fairfax AC. Presented by Bridgestar Pty Ltd through the Australian Government’s Cultural Gifts Program, 2020)
9. Unknown fragment, partial crown found in Old woman sleeping, c. 1636 (NHD 160), (National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Felton Bequest, 1958)

Andrew C. Weislogel (co-founder of Watermark Identification in Rembrandt’s Etchings)¹⁶The WIRE project was founded by C. Richard Johnson, Jr and Andrew C. Weislogel and is a cross-disciplinary research project, building on Hinterding’s 2006 catalogue system incorporating a computer-based interface tool called the ‘Decision Tree’ which aids in identifying Rembrandt watermarks. Watermark Identification in Rembrandt’s Etchings, Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art, Cornell University, https://rembrandtwireproject.github.io/choose_user_image.html, accessed May 20, 2023. has kindly assisted in the assessment of this group of nine watermarks, sharing new information and insight where possible. In addition to Weislogel’s expertise, recently developed software watermarkPointMarker and visualizeOverlays have been useful tools in analysing recently found watermarks and deciphering subtle variations between identical and twin watermarks¹⁷Margaret Holben Ellis, C. Richard Johnson, Jr and William A. Sethares are the collaborators behind the Paper Studies software suite that includes the programs watermarkPointMarker and visualizeOverlays. More information about their collaboration on the LEOcode project (analysing the codices of Leonardo Davinci) and access to the Paper Studies suite can be found online: LEOcode, 2023, https://leocode.org/, accessed July 21, 2023. Also see recent publication Ellis et al.. The recently captured and analysed watermarks are summarised below.

The NGV’s impression of The Rest on the Flight into Egypt: lightly etched, 1645 is printed on paper with the Foolscap with five-pointed collar, variant B.a.a watermark, and adds to eight identical watermarks and two twin watermarks found in the same impressions at other various institutions¹⁸Hinterding 2006, vol II, p. 259.. Multiple impressions of the same print on this paper may suggest Rembrandt pairing plate and paper intentionally, or perhaps is simply an example of some paper stock used in his studio at the time of printing.

The rare Serpent, variant A.b watermark found in the NGV’s The great Jewish bride, 1635, has so far been found in only one other Rembrandt print, Cottage beside a Canal with a View of Ouderkerk, c. 1641-1643 (NHD 202) at Harvard Art Museums. Although, the Serpent watermark found in the NGV print is only a partial watermark, applying the watermarkPointMarker and visualizeOverlays to beta-radio graph images from both institutions has shown a very close match between the two, indicating they are possibly twin watermarks and certainly closely related watermarks. This may suggest that the two Rembrandt etchings were printed closer in time, for example that the NGV impression was printed nearer to the year the Harvard impression, or, that this paper was in Rembrandt’s studio for a period. Similar Serpent watermarks were found in The Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies, two folios dated 1652-1654, and a closely related watermark dated 1644, while another similar watermark was found at the National and University Library of Iceland more broadly dated 1595-1660.¹⁹Watermarks found on Wasserzeichen Information Systems, https://www.wasserzeichen-online.de//wzis/index.php, accessed November 7, 2023.

Strasbourg lily, variant A.4WR.c.a watermark found in the NGV’s Christ Presented to the People: oblong plate, 1655 (NHD 290 v/viii) has been found in the same impression held by five other institutions. Of this group Hinterding has cited three identical watermarks and two nearly identical watermarks.²⁰Ibid. pp. 197, 266. Strasbourg lily variant B found in The Decent from the Cross by torchlight, 1654 has not been found on any other papers of the same impression or print. However, there are two small marks made with a burin in the upper right corner of the print. A subsequent owner of Rembrandt’s plates added these marks to numerous plates c. 1700, which has served as a clue to identify the impression was printed posthumously.²¹Marks discovered by Krzysztof Kruzel. Erik Hinterding, Jaco Rutgers and Ger Luijten (ed.) The New Hollstein Dutch and Flemish Etchings. Engravings and Woodcuts 1450-1700, Sound and Vision Publishers, Ouderkerk aan den Ijssel, 2013, text I, p. 58.

Paper marked with the Strasbourg lily, variant E’.a.b watermark is from a large batch used by Rembrandt²²Paper with the Strasbourg lily E’.a. watermark and countermark WK’.a has been used for numerous Rembrandt impressions indicating a large stock of paper used. Hinterding estimated this paper was made c.1652 as the latest good quality impressions known to him were produced at this time. Hinterding, vol II, pp. 398- 402. and is a mark found in the NGV’s St Francis beneath a tree, praying, 1657. The Strasbourg lily, variant E’.a has a known countermark²³Early European papers were made with a watermark and a secondary mark known as a countermark. Each mark is traditionally sewn in the centre of each half of the paper mould. Initials are commonly used as countermarks and can signify the papermakers name, the name of the paper mill, a place name, or a patron’s name. Edward Heawood, Watermarks Mainly of the 17th and 18th Centuries, Paper Publications Society, Amsterdam, 1969, pp.34-38. WK’.a, which is found in the NGV’s The Omval, 1645 (NHD 221 ii/iii), though it is not known if the NGV’s watermark and countermark is from the same papermaking mould. The watermarkPointMarker and visualizeOverlays software has been extremely useful in analysing and confirming the NGV’s Strasbourg lily, variant E’.a.b watermark with those found in three prints at The Morgan Library and Museum. For example, the Morgan’s St. Jerome Beside a Pollard Willow, 1648 (NHD 244, IV) has an identical watermark (variant E’a.b), while St Jerome in a dark chamber, 1642 watermark is nearly identical or a twin watermark (variant E’.a.a) and ‘Ledikant’ or ‘Le Lit a la Franc̜aise’ (also known as The French bed), 1646 (NHD 230, IV), although catalogued by Hinterding as an unidentified twin mark, appears to be identical to the NGV watermark after utilising this specialised software. Together these watermarks suggest that the papers were made within the expected lifespan of the papermaking mould²⁴It is estimated that an early European laid papermaking mould in active use would last for a period of nine months to two years, with the caveat that some moulds may have not been put to continuous use, e.g., sold on or set aside. Ellis et. al, p. 6, notes 3 and 9. and Hinterding had estimated that this paper was likely made c.1652. Considering now the NGV impression, this reveals Rembrandt has printed on a sheet from the same ream or stock approximately five years later.

The watermark found in the NGV’s impression of Woman with the arrow, 1661 falls into a broad category of Strasbourg lily watermarks that cannot be further identified, which is signified by the variant code ZZ.zz. There are six known impressions of the same print with a Strasbourg lily, variant ZZ.zz watermark in other institutions²⁵Hinterding 2006, text vol II, pg. 295. and the NGV has two more prints with an unidentified Strasbourg lily watermark, variant ZZ.zz: Landscape with a Cottage and Hay Barn, 1641 (NHD 199, acc. no. 32-4) and Sheet of studies with the head of Rembrandt, a beggar man, woman and child, 1651 (NHD 261). All three examples in the NGV are fragmentary watermarks which impedes further identification. Strasbourg lily, variant ZZ.zz watermarks found within Rembrandt’s papers are broad, as Hinterding cites over 100 impressions, which reflects both Rembrandt’s use and stock of these papers, and is an example of a common watermark motif used by papermakers of the period.

The watermark known as Miscellaneous, late, variant A.zz found in the NGV’s Jews in the Synagogue, 1648 is also found in three more NGV Rembrandt prints: Abraham and Isaac, 1645 (NHD 224 i/ii), The Presentation in the Temple: Oblong print, c. 1639 (NHD 184 iv/v), and The strolling musicians, c.1935 (NHD 135 iii/iii). This Miscellaneous, late watermark is likely from a paper produced later than papers used by Rembrandt. The placename for this appears to be ‘Paris’ or ‘Parie’ with either the year ‘1680’ or a combination of initials and numbers ‘AG80’ below. Use of this paper has been connected to Pierre Francois Basan, a Parisian print dealer and publisher who was known to have printed from Rembrandt plates posthumously.²⁶Ash and Fletcher, p. 219.

A small unidentifiable watermark fragment was captured in the NGV impression of Jan Lutma, goldsmith, 1656 on oatmeal paper. This paper is likely made from linen rag and raw hemp fibre, that gives the sheet a coarse texture and creamy colour tone. The beta-radiograph reveals both the watermark fragment and the characteristic oatmeal paper appearance, flecked with long, coarse and strong hemp fibres, that are often still visible in the sheet once dry. The NGV has few Rembrandt prints on similar oatmeal paper and this print is the only example with a watermark.

A second unidentifiable fragment that possibly forms the top of a crown was found in the impression Old woman sleeping, c. 1636. This is currently the only known watermark associated with this impression and presents a rare capture from a very small print (measures 6.9 × 5.3 cm (plate), 7.5 × 5.9 cm (sheet)).

Although not a new watermark to add to Rembrandt’s papers, it is worth mentioning the NGV’s recent acquisition of Saint Jerome under the pollard willow, 1648 with the watermark Strasbourg lily, variant B.c.b. This print was cited by Hinterding when it was part of the Former Ritman Collection, although mistakenly catalogued as ‘St Francis beneath a tree praying’, 1657 and listed with other known impressions sharing nearly identical or twin watermarks.²⁷The Former Ritman Collection beta-radiograph seen in Hinterding, vol III p. 422 and catalogued incorrectly in vol II, p. 279, Andrew C. Weislogel, email correspondence, July 21, 2023. The recent recapture of this watermark has brought to light that the NGV impression of Saint Jerome under the pollard willow, 1648 is the only known print found on this paper. This impression therefore may have been printed later, at a similar time to the run of St Francis beneath a tree praying, 1657 or could be another example of Rembrandt using a Strasbourg lily paper over a period of years.

The concept of Rembrandt using the same paper over many years is a possibility, as Hinterding has speculated the paper marked with Basilisk A’.a (no countermark) was used by Rembrandt over an approximated nine-year period.²⁸Hinterding 2006, vol I, p. 41 and vol II, pp. 369-70. The NGV has two etchings with this Basilisk watermark variant found in Landscape with cottage and haybarn, 1641 (NHD 199, acc. No. 2020.472) and Ephraim Bonus, Jewish physician, 1647 (NHD 237 ii/ii).

Only one account of Rembrandt purchasing, and later stock-piling paper exists. It is recorded in 1637 that Rembrandt bought ‘1 lot of white paper’ from painter and collector Jan Bassé, presumably a ream made of approximately 500 sheets.²⁹A ream of paper would likely have consisted of 500 sheets containing watermarks and twin watermarks. Ellis et. al, pp. 1-2, note 5. When Rembrandt became bankrupt in 1656 and his possessions were inventoried for valuation, ‘a stack of paper of very large size’ was listed, hinting that Rembrandt did stockpile paper in his studio.³⁰Papers purchased by Rembrandt and inventoried are listed on p. 141 and p. 377 respectively, Strauss, W. L. and Meulen, M. van der, The Rembrandt Documents, New York, Abaris Books, 1979.

NGV paper conservators are thrilled to publish this collection of Rembrandt watermarks online, abridging recently captured watermarks with those included in the Hinterding catalogue. The website offers a summary of the collection, how watermarks were made during Rembrandt’s life, how NGV conservators have captured and documented watermarks, and a general summary of the watermark motifs found. Watermark motifs have been given an interactive vector diagram tile, that can be selected to present a drop-down list of Rembrandt prints containing each watermark type. Each print title is linked to NGV Collections Online, where the user can view the artwork, catalogue details, beta-radiograph image and specific watermark data (such as measurements, wire side and related watermark catalogue references).

The NGV’s Rembrandt’s watermarked papers database now sits alongside the Dürer watermark database: Watermarks in the NGV’s Collection of Prints by Albrecht Dürer.³¹National Gallery of Victoria, Watermarks in the NGV’s Collection of Prints by Albrecht Dürer, 2016, supported by Dr. Susanne Pearce, https://www.ngv.vic.gov.au/ explore/collection/conservation/watermarks-durer/, accessed June, 1 2023. Both the Rembrandt and Dürer watermark databases, including a third study of the NGV’s watermark album compiled by Cannon von Büllingen³²The Album of watermarks (compiled in the 19th century) by Canon von Büllingen has many examples of traced watermarks. Louise Wilson, ‘Bibliomania; or book madness: the story of the von Büllingen album of watermarks’, published in The Quarterly, the Journal of the British Association of Paper Historians, no. 120, Oct. 2021, pp. 1-11. have been shared with The Bernstein Consortium, Memory of Paper³³The Bernstein Consortium, Memory of Paper, co-funded by the EC programme eContentplus, August 18, 2023, https://www.memoryofpaper.eu/BernsteinPortal/appl_start.disp, accessed November 1, 2023. online portal of watermarks.

Acknowledgements
Watermarks for this database have been gathered and studied over many years by paper conservators: Lyndsay Knowles, Cobus van Breda, Ruth Shervington, Louise Wilson and Bonnie Hearn. With contributions from curators: Irena Zdanowicz, Cathy Leahy and Petra Kayser and researchers abroad: Emanuel Wenger, Frieder Schmidt and Peter Bower. Thanks to the NGV Multimedia team who assisted in compiling the research online. The NGV is extremely grateful for the work of Erik Hinterding and his assessment of the watermarks within the Rembrandt prints at the NGV included in his 2006 catalogue, and also Andrew C. Weislogel and C. Richard Johnson, Jr who have advanced Hinterding’s study via the Watermark Identification in Rembrandt’s Etchings (WIRE) project. Lastly, a special thanks to Andy who kindly assisted in identifying recently captured NGV watermarks.

Yvonne (Bonnie) Hearn is Conservator of Paper at NGV.